Ancient Egypt, with a rich history spanning over 3,000 years, witnessed the Roman conquest in 30 B.C., marking the start of nearly seven centuries of Roman rule. In December 639, the Arab conquest brought an end to this ancient African kingdom’s era.
The decline and transition of Ancient Egypt, shaped by various factors including personal rivalries, military events, leadership shortcomings, and more, played a pivotal role in its historical trajectory.
This article aims to delve into the history of Ancient Egypt, spanning from the period of Roman Rule to the subsequent Arab Conquest.
The Reign of the Romans
Roman Rule commenced in 30 B.C. following the demise of Cleopatra VII. Fearing for her life and throne after the assassination of her lover, Julius Caesar, in 44 B.C., Cleopatra allied herself with the Roman general Mark Antony. Together, they engaged in conflict against another Roman leader, Octavian (later known as Augustus). Unfortunately, Cleopatra’s choice proved ill-fated.
The pivotal encounter occurred at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C., where Cleopatra and Mark Antony suffered a decisive defeat. Rather than endure the humiliation of capture, Cleopatra chose to end her life.
The fall of Cleopatra and Antony marked the end of the Ptolemaic Dynasty, which had held power since Alexander the Great’s passing in 323 B.C. Subsequently, Emperor Augustus seized full authority over Egypt, following Cleopatra’s suicide and the assassination of her co-ruler and son, Ptolemy Caesar.
During the First Century, the Roman Emperor appointed a governor for a set term, depoliticizing the region, mitigating power struggles among influential Romans, and undermining any potential rallying point for local sentiments. Augustus also implemented land reforms that expanded private landownership and restructured local administration into a Roman liturgical system, where landowners were obligated to serve in local government roles.
Egypt as a Roman Province
Egypt, upon becoming a Roman Province, underwent significant transformation. The defeat of Cleopatra and Antony led to its integration into the Roman Empire. Emperor Augustus assumed direct control after the demise of Cleopatra and her co-ruler, Ptolemy Caesar. Under Roman rule, Egypt was organized as a province, governed by Roman officials and subjected to Roman law and administration.
Augustus introduced various reforms, including the appointment of a Roman prefect as the regional governor for a limited term. This move depoliticized Egypt, reducing rivalries for control among influential Romans and minimizing opportunities for local sentiments to coalesce against Roman authority. Additionally, Augustus implemented land reforms that facilitated broader private landownership, while the local administration adopted a Roman liturgical system, mandating landowners’ involvement in governing their regions.
In essence, Egypt’s transition into a Roman Province marked a profound shift in its governance and socio-economic structure, aligning it more closely with the Roman Empire’s norms and systems.
Queen Zenobia Leads an Attack on Roman Egypt
During Roman rule in Egypt, two significant disasters disrupted Roman control. The first was the Antonine Plague in the 2nd Century A.D., from which the Roman Empire eventually recovered. However, the more devastating event occurred in 270 when Queen Zenobia of Palmyra, an unexpected invader from an independent city on the Syrian border, besieged the province and severed its vital grain supply. This action enraged the Romans, leading to a fierce conflict.
Ultimately, Queen Zenobia was defeated by the newly crowned Roman Emperor Aurelian in 271. Although the Roman Empire endured both of these attacks, the repercussions were substantial. Egypt remained part of the Roman Empire until the 7th Century, when it fell under Arab control.
Cause Of Arab Conquest on Egypt
The Arab conquest of Egypt was primarily triggered by a combination of factors. One of the key catalysts was the political instability and weakening of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, which had previously ruled Egypt. Additionally, the emergence of the Islamic Caliphate under the leadership of the Rashidun Caliphs, particularly Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, played a pivotal role.
The Arab forces, motivated by religious fervor and expansionist ambitions, saw an opportunity in Egypt’s vulnerability. Economic factors, including the lucrative trade routes and wealth of Egypt, further fueled their desire to conquer the region. The Egyptian Christian population, discontent with Byzantine rule, sometimes provided support to the Arab invaders.
The decisive Battle of Heliopolis in 640 A.D. marked a significant turning point, as the Arab forces, led by Amr ibn al-As, emerged victorious against the Byzantine army. This victory paved the way for the Arab conquest of Egypt, ultimately bringing the region under Islamic rule and integrating it into the expanding Islamic Caliphate.
The Role of Amr Ibn Al-As
The Egyptian-Arabic tale of the conquest recounts the legendary exploits of Amr ibn al-As, who personally witnessed the opulence and grandeur of Egypt.
According to the legend, just before the Muslim conquest, al-As had embarked on a trading expedition in Jerusalem, accompanied by a group from Quraysh. During this journey, he performed two remarkable acts of kindness that would change the course of history. First, he rescued a deacon from the brink of death due to thirst, and then he saved the same deacon from a venomous snake bite.
Deeply moved by these benevolent deeds, the deacon was determined to express his gratitude. He intended to offer al-As a monetary gift, equivalent to the traditional blood money for saving a life, which amounted to 100 camels. However, al-As declined the generous offer, showcasing his noble character and reinforcing the narrative of his virtuous actions during this pivotal moment in history.
The deacon responded that camels were not common in his homeland. Instead, he inquired about the equivalent cost of one hundred camels in dinars, which amounted to a thousand dinars. As a stranger in the land who had come solely to pray at the Holy Sepulcher, the deacon extended an invitation to Amr ibn al-As, urging him to accompany him to Egypt.
The Invasion of Egypt by the Muslims
This journey marked the beginning of the Muslim invasion of Egypt. Amr ibn al-As left behind his companions and ventured into Egypt alongside the deacon. In Egypt, he was captivated by the country’s magnificence, prosperity, and grandeur. The deacon duly rewarded him and provided a guide to lead him back to his group. Nevertheless, Amr could not shake the profound impression of Egypt’s riches and the splendor of Alexandria. It was at this moment that he resolved to conquer Egypt, recognizing the immense wealth and opportunities that the land, particularly the city of Alexandria, held.
Following personal consultation with Caliph Umar, Amr ibn al-As assembled a formidable force, comprising approximately 3,500 to 4,000 carefully selected men drawn from various tribes. Notably, the tribe of Akk, residing in Yemen, contributed significantly to this military contingent.
This relatively modest yet determined army embarked on its conquest, commencing with the capture of the city of Farama (ancient Pelusius), situated along the eastern coast near Port Said. Due to a feeble garrison, the city endured a month-long siege by the Muslim forces before falling under their complete control.
With Farama secured, the Muslim troops advanced to Bilbay, where they encountered some resistance but remained undeterred, ultimately gaining control of the city. At this juncture, Amr had dispatched for reinforcements to bolster their ranks. Meanwhile, they pressed forward to Umm Dunayn, likely positioned along the Nile to the north of present-day Cairo. Here, they encountered formidable resistance as the Byzantines had fortified themselves within scattered gates and earthworks. The battle was arduous, and victory was hard-fought, but ultimately, the Muslims triumphed.
After their hard-fought victory, Amr ibn al-As rewarded his men with various gifts, which included a dinar, a juhha, a hurnus, a turban, and two pairs of shoes.
Following their triumph over the Byzantines at Umm Dunayn, the Muslim forces embarked on an expedition to Fayumm. Although the Romans managed to secure Fayumm temporarily, their hold on the region was short-lived. The relentless pursuit of the Muslims led to the recapture of Fayumm.
In due course, the reinforcements requested by Amr finally arrived, numbering 12,000 men under the command of Zubayr b. al-Awwam.
The Arab Conquest of Alexandria
The Muslim forces proceeded to the fortress of Babylon, where they encountered even more formidable resistance. This was primarily due to the robust garrison established by the Byzantines, reportedly consisting of 5,000 to 6,000 soldiers.
However, a turning point came in March 641 when news arrived of the death of Heraclius, leading to a succession crisis within the Byzantine Empire. These significant events – Heraclius’ demise and the ensuing succession turmoil – had a profound impact on the Byzantine defense. The Byzantines were disheartened, while these developments bolstered the morale of the Arab forces, further influencing the dynamics of the conflict.
On Easter Monday, April 9, 641, the Byzantines eventually surrendered the formidable fortress of Babylon to the Arab forces. They vacated the fortress, taking some of their gold with them but leaving behind a substantial amount of military equipment. With the conquest of the great fortress of Babylon achieved, Amr ibn al-As began preparations to besiege and conquer the city of Alexandria.
Following the death of Heraclius on February 11, 641, power transitioned to his sons, Heraclonas and Constantine. However, just three months later, Constantine succumbed to tuberculosis, leaving Heraclonas to assume full authority, alongside his ambitious mother, Martina. This new leadership was inclined towards seeking peace with the Muslims. They recalled Cyrus from exile and dispatched him to Alexandria, not with the aim of bolstering resistance, but rather to explore potential terms for negotiation with the Arab forces.
Cyrus had aspired to reinstate the agreement he had previously established before the Arab conquest in 639. Therefore, during his encounter with al-As in October, Cyrus perceived no viable alternative but to acknowledge the situation as it stood. Consequently, a peace accord was reached on November 28, 641, solidifying the outcome.
Per the terms of the new agreement, the residents of Alexandria were obligated to pay tribute. Simultaneously, the Roman army was to evacuate the city, taking their possessions and treasures with them, and return to Constantinople via sea. However, Cyrus faced difficulties in conveying this message to the people of Alexandria.
It wasn’t until an Arab contingent arrived to collect the initial installment of the tribute that the inhabitants of Alexandria became aware of the peace agreement. Subsequently, Cyrus tearfully explained the sequence of events to the people of Alexandria, who, at that point, offered no resistance. The Arab forces assumed control of the city, marking the culmination of the conquest. Finally, on December 10, 641, the residents of Alexandria fulfilled their tribute obligation, and they were gradually won over by the Arabs.
Following the conquest of Alexandria, resistance from other towns in the region was minimal or nonexistent. While sporadic resistance was encountered in some smaller towns of the northern delta during visits by Muslim armies, it did not result in sustained opposition.
Several key factors contributed to the Arab conquest of Egypt:
- Byzantine Weakness: The Byzantine Empire, which had previously ruled Egypt, was weakened by internal conflicts and succession crises, making it vulnerable to external threats.
- Arab Unity: The emerging Islamic Caliphate under the Rashidun Caliphs fostered a sense of unity and purpose among the Arab forces, who were motivated by religious fervor.
- Economic Incentives: Egypt’s wealth, strategic location, and prosperous trade routes made it an attractive target for the expansionist Arab armies.
- Military Leadership: Skilled military leaders like Amr ibn al-As played a crucial role in planning and executing the conquest of Egypt.
- Local Support: Some segments of the Egyptian Christian population, discontented with Byzantine rule, provided support to the Arab invaders.
- Political Instability: The death of Heraclius and the subsequent succession crisis within the Byzantine Empire further destabilized the region, creating opportunities for the Arabs.
- Tactical Adaptability: The Arab forces demonstrated flexibility and adaptability in their military tactics, enabling them to overcome well-fortified Byzantine positions.
- Morale Boost: The Byzantine depression resulting from the succession crisis boosted Arab morale, further tilting the balance in their favor.
These factors, combined with effective leadership and strategic planning, contributed to the successful Arab conquest of Egypt.